When bad builders paid the ultimate price – a history of building codes

Throughout history, societies have understood the importance of building regulations, often in the harshest terms imaginable. Today, we think of building codes as a dry, but essential part of construction - ensuring fire safety, structural integrity and accessibility. However, in the ancient world, these rules could mean life or death, not just for the building’s occupants, but for the builders themselves.

One of the most infamous examples of early building codes comes from King Hammurabi of Babylon, who ruled around 1750 BC. The Code of Hammurabi is one of the world’s oldest sets of laws, covering everything from trade to family disputes. But when it came to construction, Hammurabi had zero tolerance for shoddy workmanship. His law was brutal - if a house collapsed and killed its owner, the builder could be executed. If the collapse killed the owner’s son, then the builder’s own son would be put to death. If it injured a slave, the builder had to compensate the owner.

This approach to construction regulation may seem barbaric by modern standards, but it reflected a fundamental truth of the ancient world - buildings were matters of life and death. Without rigorous oversight, homes, temples, and public buildings could collapse, killing or maiming those inside. In an era without insurance, liability lawsuits, or modern engineering knowledge, rulers like Hammurabi made the stakes clear - get it right, or face dire consequences.

Hammurabi was not alone in his strict approach to construction laws. Other ancient civilisations also imposed regulations to maintain building quality and safety, though with varying degrees of severity.

Ancient Egypt

The Egyptians were master builders, responsible for some of the most enduring structures in human history. While there is no known equivalent to Hammurabi’s harsh penalties, there is evidence that the state took construction quality seriously. Skilled labourers were often well-fed and given medical care, ensuring that workers were healthy enough to produce high-quality work. Any sign of negligence on royal projects could lead to severe punishment, as failing to complete a temple or pyramid properly was seen as an offense against the gods.

The Romans took a more systematic approach to construction laws. The Lex Julia Municipalis, enacted by Julius Caesar, laid out detailed urban planning and building regulations. One key law dictated that apartment buildings (insulae) could not exceed a certain height, often capped at around 70 Roman feet (approximately 20 metres). This was an early attempt to prevent collapses in the densely packed cities of the empire.

However, despite these rules, Roman cities often suffered from building collapses and fires. The Emperor Nero, after the Great Fire of Rome in 64 AD, introduced strict building codes requiring fireproof materials and wider streets to prevent fires from spreading. Rome’s architects and engineers, known for innovations like concrete and aqueducts, had to ensure their structures met these new standards - or face the wrath of the emperor.

Ancient China

China’s approach to building codes was less about punishment and more about precision. The Yingzao Fashi, a technical manual compiled in the Song Dynasty (1065–1110 AD), detailed meticulous construction guidelines for everything from pagodas to palaces. It specified exact measurements, material qualities, and even aesthetic principles to ensure harmony with nature. While mistakes were not met with execution, failing to adhere to these standards could lead to loss of rank or disgrace for the builder.

As civilisations advanced, so did their understanding of building safety. However, it often took disasters to spur new regulations. The Great Fire of London in 1666 destroyed much of the city, largely because buildings were made of wood and built too closely together. In the aftermath, King Charles II issued the Rebuilding Act of 1667, which mandated that all new buildings in London be constructed with brick or stone to reduce fire risk. Streets were also widened to prevent fires from spreading as easily. This was one of the first instances of a government using law to mandate fire-resistant building materials - a principle that remains central to modern construction codes.

The 19th and early 20th centuries saw rapid urbanisation, leading to new construction challenges. Factories, railways, and high-rise buildings introduced risks that earlier societies never faced. The 1905 collapse of the Bazar de la Charité in Paris, where a poorly constructed temporary building caught fire and killed 126 people, led to stricter fire safety codes across Europe. Similarly, the Triangle Shirtwaist Factory fire in New York (1911), which claimed 146 lives due to locked exits and poor safety planning, became a catalyst for major reforms in occupational safety and building design.

Lessons from history

Looking at the brutal and often strange building regulations of the past, one might think we have moved far beyond such extremes. Today, builders are not executed for mistakes, but modern building codes remain crucial for public safety.

From earthquakes to fires, properly enforced building codes save lives. Countries like Japan have some of the most advanced earthquake-resistant building regulations, which have significantly reduced casualties in major quakes.

Climate change, urbanisation and new technologies require continuous updates to building codes. In places prone to hurricanes or wildfires, modern regulations ensure structures are built to withstand extreme conditions.

It must also be noted that while Hammurabi’s penalties were severe, they did enforce accountability. Today, lawsuits and professional penalties serve a similar purpose, holding builders responsible for negligence.

While building codes are essential, overregulation can sometimes stifle innovation. Ancient Rome’s height restrictions may have prevented collapses, but today, skyscrapers stand safely thanks to engineering advancements. The key is to create codes that prioritise safety while allowing for technological progress.

Looking back, the harsh penalties of Hammurabi’s code may seem excessive, but they highlight an age-old truth - buildings must be safe, or lives will be lost. From Rome’s fire regulations to China’s meticulous manuals, history is full of lessons on the importance of construction oversight.

As we continue to build higher, faster and smarter, the fundamental need for building codes remains unchanged. We may not execute builders for mistakes anymore, but ensuring safety, accountability, and innovation remains just as vital today as it was 4,000 years ago. The next time you step into a skyscraper, cross a bridge, or enter a newly built home, remember - the rules keeping you safe have been thousands of years in the making.